Marc Fielding Plumbing: Tank gas and electric water heater information

Frozen pipes

Preventing Frozen Pipes
An average of a quarter-million families have their homes ruined and their lives disrupted each winter, all because of water pipes that freeze and burst.
And recovering from frozen pipes is not as simple as calling a plumber. An eighth-inch (three millimeter) crack in a pipe can spew up to 250 gallons (946 liters) of water a day. Both plastic (PVC) and copper pipes can burst.
By taking a few simple precautions, you can save yourself the mess, money and aggravation frozen pipes cause.
Before the cold hits
Insulate pipes in your home's crawl spaces and attic. These exposed pipes are most susceptible to freezing. Remember - the more insulation you use, the better protected your pipes will be.
Heat tape or thermostatically-controlled heat cables can be used to wrap pipes. Be sure to use products approved by an independent testing organization, such as Underwriters Laboratories Inc., and only for the use intended (exterior or interior). Closely follow all manufacturers' installation and operation instructions.
Seal leaks that allow cold air inside near where pipes are located. Look for air leaks around electrical wiring, dryer vents and pipes. Use caulk or insulation to keep the cold out and the heat in. With severe cold, even a tiny opening can let in enough cold air to cause a pipe to freeze.
Disconnect garden hoses and, if practical, use an indoor valve to shut off and drain water from pipes leading to outside faucets. This reduces the chance of freezing in the short span of pipe

more information about frozen pipes

Preventing and Thawing
Frozen Pipes
Many people have asked the Red Cross for information and suggestions about
how to prevent water pipes in the home from freezing, and how to thaw them if
they do freeze. The following information is provided to address those questions.
Why pipe freezing is a problem
Water has a unique property in that it expands as it freezes. This expansion puts
tremendous pressure on whatever is containing it, including metal or plastic pipes. No matter
the “strength” of a container, expanding water can cause pipes to break. Pipes that freeze most
frequently are those that are exposed to severe cold, like outdoor hose bibs, swimming pool
supply lines, water sprinkler lines, and water supply pipes in unheated interior areas like
basements and crawl spaces, attics, garages, or kitchen cabinets. Also, pipes that run against
exterior walls that have little or no insulation are also subject to freezing.
Pipe freezing is a particular problem in warmer climates where pipes often run through
uninsulated or underinsulated attics or crawl spaces.
Preventing Frozen Pipes
Before the onset of cold weather, prevent freezing of these water supply lines and pipes by
following these recommendations:
• Drain water from swimming pool and water sprinkler supply lines following manufacturer’s or
installer’s directions. Do not put antifreeze in these lines unless directed. Antifreeze is
environmentally harmful, and is dangerous to humans, pets, wildlife, and landscaping.
• Remove, drain, and store hoses used outdoors. Close inside valves supplying outdoor hose
bibs. Open the outside hose bibs to allow water to drain. Keep the outside valve open so
that any water remaining in the pipe can expand without cause the pipe to break.
• Check around the home for other areas where water supply lines are located and are in
unheated areas. Look in the basement, crawl space, attic, garage, and under kitchen and
bathroom cabinets. Both hot and cold water pipes in these areas should be insulated. A hot
water supply line can freeze just as a cold water supply line can freeze if the water is not
running through the pipe and the water temperature in the pipe is cold.
• Consider installing specific products made to insulate water pipes like a “pipe sleeve” or
installing UL-listed “heat tape,” “heat cable,” or similar materials on exposed water pipes.
Many products are available at your local building supplies retailer. Pipes should be
carefully wrapped, with ends butted thightly and joints wrapped with tape. Follow
manufacturer’s recommendations for installing and using these products. Newspaper can
provide some degree of insulation and protection to exposed pipes – even ¼” of newspaper
can provide significant protection in areas that usually do not have frequent or prolonged
temperatures below freezing.
During Cold Weather, Take Preventive Action
• Keep garage doors closed if there are water supply lines in the garage.
• Open kitchen and bathroom cabinet doors to allow warmer air to circulate around the
plumbing. Be sure to move any harmful cleaners and household chemicals up out of the
reach of children.
• When the weather is very cold outside, let the cold water drip from the faucet served by
exposed pipes. Running water through the pipe – even at a trickle – helps prevent pipes
from freezing because the temperature of the water running through it is above freezing.
• Keep the thermostat set to the same temperature both during the day and at night. By
temporarily suspending the use of lower nighttime temperatures, you may incur a higher
heating bill, but you can prevent a much more costly repair job if pipes freeze and burst.
• If you will be going away during cold weather, leave the heat on in your home, set to a
temperature no lower than 55ºF.
To Thaw Frozen Pipes
If you turn on a faucet and only a trickle comes out, suspect a frozen pipe. Locate the
suspected frozen area of the water pipe. Likely places include pipes running against exterior
walls or where your water service enters your home through the foundation.
• Keep the faucet open. As you treat the frozen pipe and the frozen area begins to melt, water
will begin to flow through the frozen area. Running water through the pipe will help melt
more ice in the pipe.
• Apply heat to the section of pipe using an electric heating pad wrapped around the pipe, and
electric hair dryer, a portable space heater (kept away from flammable materials), or
wrapping pipes with towels soaked in hot water. Do not use a blowtorch, kerosene or
propane heater, charcoal stove, or other open flame device. A blowtorch can make water in
a frozen pipe boil and cause the pipe to explode. All open flames in homes present a
serious fire danger, as well as a severe risk of exposure to lethal carbon monoxide.
• Apply heat until full water pressure is restored. If you are unable to locate the frozen area, if
the frozen area is not accessible, or if you can not thaw the pipe, call a licensed plumber.
• Check all other faucets in your home to find out if you have additional frozen pipes. If one
pipe freezes, others may freeze, too.
Future Protection
• Consider relocating exposed pipes to provide increased protection from freezing. Pipes can
be relocated by a professional if the home is remodeled.
• Add insulation added to attics, basements, and crawl spaces. Insulation will maintain higher
temperatures in these areas.

Center-pivot rotary irrigation system

CENTER-PIVOT
The center pivot is a self-propelled continuous move machine that rotates around a central pivot point. The propulsion system may be oil hydraulic, water hydraulic, or electric. The trend is toward electric drive machines, either 240 or 480 volt, three phase, with most being 480 volt. Electric motors of 0.5 to 1.5 horsepower are mounted on each tower with a drive shaft from the motor to a gear box on each wheel.
The lateral line on which the sprinklers or spray nozzles are located are 5- to 10-inch outside diameter (OD) galvanized steel pipe, painted steel pipe or aluminum pipe. The lateral line is supported by "A" frames spaced 90 to 200 feet apart. Guide wires or trusses help support the pipe at 8 to 16 feet above the ground. The taller machines are used for orchard irrigation. Rubber tires, metal wheels, tracks or skids are mounted under each "A" frame to move the machine. Most machines use rubber tire. with high flotation tires used as needed.
Some center pivots are designed to permit transfer from one pivot point to another. On these "towable" machines, the wheels at each tower can be rotated 90 degrees to allow the machines to be towed from one or both ends. The towable units generally have aomewhat stronger construction with the towers closer together.
Center pivots are available in sizes from one tower, that irrigates seven to thirteen acres in one circle, to multiple tower machines capable of irrigating over 500 acres. The single tower machines are towable and designed to be used on multiple pivot points. Multiple tower machines may also be towable, but there is a practical limit of approximately 150 acres for a towable machine.
Center pivot systems were originally designed to operate on square, quarter section (160-acre) fields. As growers in the southeastern United States began to purchase machines, and with the introduction of electric drive machines, center pivots are now being used on many field shapes. Figure 1 shows a schematic of a center pivot designed to irrigate a square quarter section of land. With the overhand from the end gun approximately 132 acres can be irrigated.
Corner attachments, while not used on a large number of machines, allow the corners of square fields and odd-shaped areas of irregularly shaped fields to be irrigated. The corner attachment is an additional tower that is operated only as needed. It swings out from the end of the lateral line to irrigate the corners or other odd shaped areas. Operation of the corner attachment is controlled by a signal sent through a buried electric cable. Figure 2 shows a schematic of a corner attachment center pivot machine.
Pivots are available as low, medium and high pressure units. This refers to the sprinkler or spray nozzle operating pressure. The early pivots were high pressure units with typical sprinkler pressures of 70 to 90 psi. Later, smaller rotary impact sprinklers were used and pressures were reduced to 40 to 60 psi, with a booster pump for the end gun. Recently, low pressure spray nozzles have been introduced which can operate at pressures as low as 10 to 15 psi. The major disadvantage of the low pressure spray nozzles is a very high instantaneous water application rate. The instantaneous application rate is the rate of water application measured in inches per hour to a finite area of land as the machine moves across that area. High application rates often cause runoff from most soil types (except extremely sandy soils). Most soils have an intake rate leas than 0.50 inch per hour. The instantaneous application rate can be high or 4 to 5 inches per hour. As a compromise between spray nozzle and conventional rotary impact sprinklers, some growers are now using low pressure rotary impact sprinklers that operate in the range of 30 psi.
The top two are spray nozzles. Note that the area being covered at one time is small. With the low pressure impact, the same amount of water is being applied, but the area of coverage is 1.75 to 2.00 times as large. With the variable spacing impact sprinklers, the same amount of water is also being applied but the area covered is again increased. As one moves from the lowest pressure spray nozzles to the variable sprinkler spacing the instantaneous application rate is reduced by a factor of 3. Pressure to operate the system is increased, but on low intake rate soils, the higher pressure sprinklers are often required.
The speed of rotation (time it takes to complete one revolution of the circle) of the system will depend upon the system size (length), pump capacity and the amount of water to be applied at each application. The time required to complete one revolution increases as the length of the system increases. (i.e., a large system will require longer to make a complete revolution than will a small system.) A limited pump capacity or water supply can also increase the time to complete one revolution.
Pivots are best adapted to flat terrain, but units are being used satisfactorily on slopes up to 15 percent. Sloping terrain may require towers to be located closer together so that the lateral line can more closely follow the topography.
Designing a center pivot for a particular field is somewhat routine since system length is normally determined by the radius of the field. Initial sizing ia done from an aerial photograph. Then a ground survey is conducted to determine the exact pivot point location and to identify obstacles that need to be removed or bridged ao that they will be cleared by the machine. Next, the water source capacity is determined. With this information, plus soil infiltration capacity, and peak daily evapotranspiration (ET) (daily water use rate of the crop), the system manufacturer uses a computer program to determine the lateral line size, sprinkler spacing and capacity, pump capacity and horsepower required.
In North Carolina, the water supply for most pivots is a surface water supply such as a stream or pond. Where high capacity wells are available, water can be pumped directly from the well. Water is pumped from the supply to the pivot point through a buried supply line, normally polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic pipe. The pipe should have adequate diameter so that the velocity of flow does not exceed five (5) feet per second (fps). This will keep friction loss within acceptable limits and reduce the potential for pipe failure due to water hamper.
Lateral line on most pivots will consist of several sizes of pipe, depending on system capacity. Pressure loss in the lateral pipe due to friction should not exceed 20 percent of nominal sprinkler operating pressure. However, on a system equipped with pressure regulators or flow regulators at each sprinkler, it may be possible to have greater friction lose and still have uniform sprinkler discharge.
Power units for pumps to supply water to pivots can be electric or internal combustion. For the electric drive pivots, three phase power is needed to operate the motors at each tower. This can be supplied by a three-phase power line, a generator powered by an internal combustion engine, or a phase convertor to convert single-phase to three-phase power.
Safety controls on the pivot include proper wiring and grounding, especially of electric-drive units, and micro-switches at each tower to keep towers properly aligned. Speed of rotation of the machine is controlled from the main control panel. For most machines this involves controlling the speed of the outside tower, i.e., does the electric motor on that tower operate continuously or is there stop and go operation? The micro-switches at each of the other towers then control the amount of run time for the motors on each tower ao that the lateral line remains properly aligned. Improper alignment usually results in automatic system shut- down to prevent system damage.

Irrigation in Farm

Agricultural
It is estimated that 69% of world-wide water use is for irrigation, with 15-35% of irrigation withdrawals being unsustainable.
In some areas of the world irrigation is necessary to grow any crop at all, in other areas it permits more profitable crops to be grown or enhances crop yield. Various irrigation methods involve different trade-offs between crop yield, water consumption and capital cost of equipment and structures. Irrigation methods such as most furrow and overhead sprinkler irrigation are usually less expensive but also less efficient, because much of the water evaporates or runs off. More efficient irrigation methods include drip or trickle irrigation, surge irrigation, and some types of sprinkler systems where the sprinklers are operated near ground level. These types of systems, while more expensive, can minimize runoff and evaporation. Any system that is improperly managed can be wasteful. Another trade-off that is often insufficiently considered is salinization of sub-surface water.
Aquaculture is a small but growing agricultural use of water. Freshwater commercial fisheries may also be considered as agricultural uses of water, but have generally been assigned a lower priority than irrigation (see Aral Sea and Pyramid Lake).
As global populations grow, and as demand for food increases in a world with a fixed water supply, there are efforts underway to learn how to produce more food with less water, through improvements in irrigation methods and technologies, agricultural water management, crop types, and water monitoring

Crop watering

Irrigation is when people add water to plants, to help them grow when there is not enough rain. Irrigation water can be pumped from rivers, natural lakes or lakes created by dams, from wells or allowed to flow to the fields by the force of gravity along pipes or open canals.
Types of irrigation
Irrigation water can be applied to the plants from above by sprinklers that throw water out under pressure, or from watering cans.
Surface methods allow water to flow onto the soil surface from canals or pipes. Traditional methods allow water to flow over the entire surface of the field but drip irrigation allows water to be directed to the roots of each individual plant and much less water is lost by infiltration to the ground.
Sub-surface irrigation raises the water table artificially so that it can be accessed by the roots of the crop and less water is lost to evaporation.

Information on water pumping windmills

In Canada and the United States
Windmills feature uniquely in the history of New France, particularly in Canada, where they were used as strong points in fortifications. Prior to the 1690 Battle of Québec, the strong point of the city's landward defenses was a windmill called Mont-Carmel, where a three-gun battery was in place. At Fort Senneville, a large stone windmill was built on a hill by late 1686, doubling as a watch tower. This windmill was like no other in New France, with thick walls, square loopholes for muskets, with machicolation at the top for pouring lethally hot liquids and rocks onto attackers. This helped make it the "most substantial castle-like fort" near Montréal.
In the United States, the development of the water-pumping windmill was the major factor in allowing the farming and ranching of vast areas of North America, which were otherwise devoid of readily accessible water. They contributed to the expansion of rail transport systems throughout the world, by pumping water from wells to supply the needs of the steam locomotives of those early times. Two builders were the Eclipse Model of Windmill (which was later bought by Fairbanks-Morse) and Aeromotor.They are still used today for the same purpose in some areas of the world where a connection to electric power lines is not a realistic option.
The multi-bladed wind turbine atop a lattice tower made of wood or steel was, for many years, a fixture of the landscape throughout rural America. These mills, made by a variety of manufacturers, featured a large number of blades so that they would turn slowly with considerable torque in low winds and be self regulating in high winds. A tower-top gearbox and crankshaft converted the rotary motion into reciprocating strokes carried downward through a rod to the pump cylinder below.
Windmills and related equipment are still manufactured and installed today on farms and ranches, usually in remote parts of the western United States where electric power is not readily available. The arrival of electricity in rural areas, brought by the Rural Electrification Administration (REA) in the 1930s through 1950s, contributed to the decline in the use of windmills in the US. Today, the increases in energy prices and the expense of replacing electric pumps has led to an increase in the repair, restoration and installation of new windmills.

Modern windmills
Main article: Wind turbine
The most modern generations of windmills are more properly called wind turbines, or wind generators, and are primarily used to generate electric power. Modern windmills are designed to convert the energy of the wind into electricity. The largest wind turbines can generate up to 6MW of power (for comparison a modern fossil fuel power plant generates between 500 and 1,300MW).
With increasing environmental concern, and approaching limits to fossil fuel consumption, wind power has regained interest as a renewable energy source.
Windpumps
Windpumps similar to this one near Winburg are to be found on remote farms all over South Africa.
A windpump is a type of windmill used for pumping water from a well or draining land.
Windpumps of the type pictured are used extensively in Southern Africa and Australia. In South Africa and Namibia thousands of windpumps are still operating. These are mostly used to provide water for human use as well as drinking water for large sheep stocks. At least 21 different types of windpumps are still operational in South Africa.[citation needed] Unfortunately few manufacturers still exist, although Southern Cross, Climax (Stewarts and Lloyds) and Poldaw windpumps are still distributed.[citation needed]Kenya has also benefited from the Africa development of windpump technologies. At the end of the 70s, the UK NGO Intermediate Technology Development Group provided engineering support to the Kenyan company Bobs Harries Engineering Ltd for the development of the Kijito windpumps. Nowadays Bobs Harries Engineering Ltd is still manufacturing the Kijito windpumps and more than 300 Kijito windpumps are operating in the whole of East Africa.

Brograve Mill, UK. An example of the derelict state of many Broadland Windpumps
The Netherlands is well known for its windmills. Most of these iconic structures situated along the edge of polders are actually windpumps, designed to drain the land. These are particularly important as much of the country lies below sea level.
Many windpumps were built in The Broads, of East Anglia in the United Kingdom for the draining of land. They have since been mostly replaced by electric power, many of these windpumps still remain, mainly in a derelict state, however some have been restored.
On US farms, particularly in the Midwest, windpumps of the type pictured were used to pump water from farm wells for cattle. Today this is done primarily by electric pumps, and only a few windpumps survive as unused relics of an environmentally sustainable technology.

Windmills for raising water

Wind power was also used to raise water. The earliest water-raising mills operated scoop wheels. A Scoop-wheel had a lift which was less than its radius.
There were hundreds of drainage mills in various parts of England but most were in Suffolk or Norfolk. Wooden scoop wheels were placed in narrow brick channels and as the wheel turned it pushed water uphill and across the threshold. This then ran off into a higher channel. On a steep slope several wind pumps were used close together.
The use of wind energy has been re-valued in recent years. Wind power can be used to generate electricity. Even traditional mills can be constructed to provide power. This Cretan form of mill is one of many to be seen at the Centre for Alternative Technology, Machynlleth. It is simple to build and does not require elaborate tools.
United States
The development of the water-pumping windmill in the USA was the major factor in allowing the farming and ranching of vast areas of North America, which were otherwise devoid of readily accessible water. They contributed to the expansion of rail transport systems, throughout the world, by pumping water from wells to supply the needs of the steam locomotives of those early times. They are still used today for the same purpose in some areas of the world where a connection to electric power lines is not a realistic option.
The multi-bladed wind turbine atop a lattice tower made of wood or steel was, for many years, a fixture of the landscape throughout rural America. These mills, made by a variety of manufacturers, featured a large number of blades so that they would turn slowly but with considerable torque in low winds and be self regulating in high winds.
A tower-top gearbox and crankshaft converted the rotary motion into reciprocating strokes carried downward through a pole or rod to the pump cylinder below.In areas not prone to freezing weather, a pump jack (or standard) was frequently mounted at the top of the well in the center of the base off the tower. This was the connection between the windmill and the pump rod, which generally went through the drop pipe to the cylinder below.
The pump jack provided a means for manual operation of the pump when the wind was not blowing. Some pump jacks provided a sealed connection, allowing water to be forced out under pressure allowing a tank at a higher elevation to provide water for a home and other uses, but many had a simple spout allowing water to flow away in a trough by gravity.
The drop pipe and pump rod continued down deep into the well, terminating at the pump cylinder below the lowest likely groundwater level. A suction tube usually continued a short distance more. This arrangement allowed wells as deep as 1200 feet (370 m) to be constructed, though most were much more shallow.
Windmills and related equipment are still manufactured and installed today on farms and ranches, usually in remote parts of the western United States where electric power is not readily available.
The arrival of electricity in rural areas, brought by the Rural Electrification Administration (REA) in the 1930s through 1950s, contributed to the decline in the use of windmills in the US. Today, with increases in energy prices and the expense of replacing electric pumps, has led to an increase in the repair, restoration and installation of new windmills.

water pumping windmills

Wind Powered Water Pumping (Windmills)
Windmills (or windpumps) were once widely used throughout the world. The decline of the windmill was due to the most part from rural electrification in the areas that utilised them most. In modern times windmills still are an economic and practical solution to water pumping in many regions and are used to supply water to livestock on many farms and outback stations in Australia. These windmills, made by a variety of manufacturers, feature a large number of blades so that they would turn slowly but with considerable torque in low winds and be self regulating in high winds. A tower-top gearbox and crankshaft converts the rotary motion into reciprocating strokes carried downward through a pole or rod to the pump cylinder below (Wikipedia, 2007). The water is often pumped from the ground into a storage tank that provides a gravity feed to a trough for drinking.

Faucets and Spigots

Tap (valve) Faucet
Indoor Tap - commonly found in the bathroom/laundry and/or kitchen. This German faucet is a single-handle, double-spout tap (one spout for hot, one spout for cold); most modern North American faucets have a single spout shared by hot and cold water supplies allowing warm flows.
A tap is a valve for controlling the release of a liquid or gas. In the British Isles and normally in the Commonwealth the word is used for any everyday type of valve, particularly the fittings that control water supply to bathtubs and sinks. In the U.S. the usage is sometimes more specialised, with the term "tap" restricted to uses such as beer taps and the word faucet being used for water outlets; however some Americans use "tap" in the broader sense as well.
Water taps
Water spigot. In North American plumbing terms, this would be called a valve (a faucet tends to be an indoor fixture with more cosmetic appeal), a hose hydrant, or a hose bibb.
The physical characteristic which differentiates a spigot from other valves is the lack of any type of a mechanical thread or fastener on the outlet.
Water for baths, sinks and basins can be provided by separate hot and cold taps; this arrangement is common in the UK, particularly in bathrooms/lavatories. In kitchens, in the U.S., and in many other places, mixer taps are often used instead. In this case, hot and cold water from the two valves is mixed together before reaching the outlet, allowing the water to emerge at any temperature between that of the hot and cold water supplies.
For baths and showers, mixer taps frequently incorporate some sort of pressure balancing feature so that the hot/cold mixture ratio will not be affected by transient changes in the pressure of one or the other of the supplies. This helps avoid scalding or uncomfortable chilling as other water loads occur (such as the flushing of a toilet).
Rather than two separate valves, mixer taps frequently use a single, more complex, valve whose handle moves up and down to control the amount of water flow and from side to side to control the temperature of the water. Especially for baths and showers, the latest designs do this using a built in thermostat. These are known as thermostatic mixing valves, or TMVs, and can be mechanical or electronic.
Mixer taps are more difficult to fit in the UK than in other countries because traditional British plumbing provides hot and cold water at different pressures.
If separate taps are fitted, it may not be immediately clear which tap is hot and which is cold. The hot tap generally has a red indicator while the cold tap generally has a blue or green indicator. In English-speaking countries, the taps are frequently also labeled with an "H" or "C". Mixer taps may have a red-blue stripe or arrows indicating which side will give hot and which cold.
In some countries there is a 'standard' arrangement of hot/cold taps: for example in the United States and Canada, the hot tap is on the left by building code requirements. This convention applies in the UK too, but many installations exist where it has been ignored. Mis-assembly of some single-valve mixer taps will exchange hot and cold even if the fixture has been plumbed correctly.
Most handles on residential homes are connected to the valve shaft and fastened down with a screw. Although on most commercial and industrial applications they are fitted with a removable key called a "loose key" or "Water key" which has a square peg and a square ended key to turn off and on the water. You can also take off the "Loose key" to prevent vandals from turning on the water. In older building before the "Loose key" was invented for some landlords or caretakers to take off the handle of a residential tap, which had teeth that would meet up with the cogs on the valve shaft. This Teeth and cog system is still used on most modern faucets. Although most of the time a "Loose key" is on industrial and commercial applications sometimes you may see a "Loose key" on homes by the seashore to prevent guests from washing the sand off their feet

Water Closets

WATER CLOSETS (TOILETS)
Close coupled cistern type flushing toilet.
A flushing toilet or water closet (WC) is a toilet that disposes of the waste matter by using water to flush it through a drainpipe to another location. Modern toilets incorporate an 'S' bend; this 'trap' creates a water seal which remains filled with water between flushing, thus providing a hygienic barrier by preventing sewer gases from passing up the drainpipe. During flushing the 'S' bend also provides siphon action which helps accelerate the flushing process. However, since this type of toilet does not generally handle waste on site, separate waste treatment systems must be built.
Invention Timeline (HISTORY)
Toilet with elevated cistern and chain attached to lever of discharge valve.
As with many inventions, the flush toilet did not suddenly spring into existence, but was the result of a long chain of minor improvements. Therefore, instead of a single name and date, there follows a list of significant contributors to the history of the device.
circa 26th century BC: Flush toilets were first used in the Indus Valley Civilization. The cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro had a flush toilet in almost every house, attached to a sophisticated sewage system.
circa 15th century BC: Flush toilets were found in the remains of the Minoan city of Akrotiri.
Roman Empire: Some examples include those at Hadrian's Wall in Britain. With the fall of the Roman Empire, the technology was lost in the West.
1596: Sir John Harington is said to have invented 'The Ajax', a flush toilet, for Elizabeth I of England, who wouldn't use the contraption because it made too much noise. His design was ridiculed in England, but was adopted in France under the name Angrez. The design had a flush valve to let water out of the tank, and a wash-down design to empty the bowl.
1738: a valve-type flush toilet was invented by JF Brondel.
1775: Alexander Cummings invented the S-trap (British patent no. 814?), still used today, that used standing water to seal the outlet of the bowl, preventing the escape of foul air from the sewer. His design had a sliding valve in the bowl outlet above the trap.
1777: Samuel Prosser invented and patented the 'plunger closet'.
1778: Joseph Bramah invented a hinged valve or 'crank valve' that sealed the bottom of the bowl, and a float valve system for the flush tank. His design was used mainly on boats.
1819: Albert Giblin received British patent 4990 for the "Silent Valveless Water Waste Preventer", a siphon discharge system.
1852: J. G. Jennings invented a wash-out design with a shallow pan emptying into an S-trap.
1857: the first American patent for a toilet, the 'plunger closet', was granted.
1860: The first watercloset was installed on the European continent and was imported from England. It has been installed in the rooms of Queen Victoria in castle Ehrenburg (Coburg, Germany) and she was the only one who was allowed to use it.
The first popularized water closets were exhibited at Crystal Palace and they became the first public toilets, they had attendants dressed in white and they charged only a penny coining the term "To spend a penny"
1880s: Thomas Crapper's plumbing company built flush toilets of Giblin's design. After the company received a royal warrant, Crapper's name became synonymous with flush toilets. Although he was not the original inventor, Crapper popularized the siphon system for emptying the tank, replacing the earlier floating valve system which was prone to leaks. Some of Crapper's designs were made by Thomas Twyford. The similarity between Crapper's name and the much older word crap is merely a coincidence.
1885: Thomas Twyford built the first one-piece china toilet using the flush-out siphon design by J. G. Jennings.
1886: an early jet flush toilet was manufactured by the Beaufort Works in Chelsea, England.
1906: William Elvis Sloan invents the Flushometer, which uses pressurized water directly from the supply line for faster recycle time between flushes. The original Royal Flushometer is still in use today in public restrooms worldwide.
1980: Bruce Thompson, working for Caroma in Australia, developed the Duoset cistern with two buttons and two flush volumes as a water-saving measure. Modern versions of the Duoset are now available in more than 30 countries worldwide, and save the average household 67% of their normal water usage.

Boiler information

Boilers
A boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other fluid is heated under pressure. The fluid is then circulated out of the boiler for use in various processes or heating applications.
Construction of boilers is mainly limited to copper, steel, stainless steel, and cast iron. In live steam toys, brass is often used.
The source of heat for a boiler is combustion of any of several fuels, such as wood, coal, oil, or natural gas. Electric boilers use resistance or immersion type heating elements. Nuclear fission is also used as a heat source for generating steam. Heat recovery steam generators (HRSGs) use the heat rejected from other processes such as gas turbines.
Boilers can also be classified into:
Fire-tube boilers. Here, the heat source is inside the tubes and the water to be heated is outside.
Water-tube boilers. Here the heat source is outside the tubes and the water to be heated is inside.
A primitive, inefficient type where there are no tubes and the fire heats one side of the water container.
The goal is to make the heat flow as completely as possible from the heat source to the water. For example, steam locomotives have fire-tube boilers, where the fire is inside the tube and the water on the outside. These usually take the form of a set of straight tubes passing through the boiler through which hot combustion gases flow.
In water-tube boilers the water flows through tubes around a fire. The tubes frequently have a large number of bends and sometimes fins to maximize the surface area. This type of boiler is generally preferred in high pressure applications since the high pressure water/steam is contained within narrow pipes which can contain the pressure with a thinner wall.
In a cast iron sectional boiler, sometimes called a "pork chop boiler" the water is contained inside cast iron sections. These sections are mechanically assembled on site to create the finished boiler.
Cornish Boiler.
There are other types of boilers, largely of historical interest. For example, the Cornish boiler developed around 1812 by Richard Trevithick for generating steam for steam engines. This was both stronger and more efficient than the simple boilers which preceded it. It was a cylindrical water tank around 27 feet long and 7 feet in diameter, and had a coal furnace placed in a single cylindrical tube about three feet wide which passed centrally along the long axis of the tank. The fire was tended from one end and the hot gases from it travelled along the tube and out of the other end, to be circulated back along flues running along the outside of the boiler before being expelled via the chimney. This was later improved upon in the Lancashire boiler which had a pair of furnaces in separate tubes side-by-side. This was an important improvement since each furnace could be stoked at different times, allowing one to be cleaned while the other was operating. These designs are really primitive fire tube boilers, and led on to the Scotch boiler which remains a popular fire tube design.
Superheated Steam Boilers
A superheated boiler on a steam locomotive.
Most boilers heat water until it boils, and then the steam is used at saturation temperature (i.e., saturated steam). Superheated steam boilers boil the water and then further heat the steam in a superheater. This provides steam at much higher temperature, and can decrease the overall thermal efficiency of the steam plant due to the fact that the higher steam temperature requires a higher flue gas exhaust temperature. However, there are advantages to superheated steam. For example, useful heat can be extracted from the steam without causing condensation, which could damage piping and turbine blades.
Superheated steam presents unique safety concerns, however, if there is a leak in the steam piping, steam at such high pressure/temperature can cause serious, instantaneous harm to anyone entering its flow. Since the escaping steam will initially be completely superheated vapor, it is not easy to see the leak, although the intense heat and sound from such a leak clearly indicates its presence.
The superheater works like coils on an air conditioning unit, however to a different end. The steam piping (with steam flowing through it) is directed through the flue gas path in the boiler furnace. This area typically is between 2500-3000 degrees fahrenheit. Some superheaters are radiant type (absorb heat by radiation), others are convection type (absorb heat via a fluid i.e. gas) and some are a combination of the two. So whether by convection or radiation the extreme heat in the boiler furnace/flue gas path will also heat the superheater steam piping and the steam within as well. It is important to note that while the temperature of the steam in the superheater is raised, the pressure of the steam is not. The process of superheating steam is most importantly designed to remove all moisture content from the steam to prevent damage to the turbine blading and/or associated piping.
Supercritical Steam Generators
Steam generation power plant.
Supercritical steam generators are frequently used for the production of electric power. They operate at "supercritical pressure". In contrast to a "subcritical boiler", a supercritical steam generator operates at such a high pressure (over 3200 PSI, 22 MPa, 220 bar) that actual boiling ceases to occur, the boiler has no liquid water - steam separation. There is no generation of steam bubbles within the water, because the pressure is above the "critical pressure" at which steam bubbles can form. It passes below the critical point as it does work in the high pressure turbine and enters the generator's condenser. This is more efficient resulting in slightly less fuel use and therefore less greenhouse gas production. The term "boiler" should not be used for a supercritical pressure steam generator, as no "boiling" actually occurs in this device.
Hydronic boilers
Hydronic boilers are used in generating heat typically for residential uses. They are the typical power plant for central heating systems fitted to houses in northern Europe (where they are commonly combined with domestic water heating), as opposed to the forced-air furnaces or wood burning stoves more common in North America. The hydronic boiler operates by way of heating water/fluid to a preset temperature (or sometimes in the case of single pipe systems, until it boils and turns to steam) and circulating that fluid throughout the home typically by way of radiators, baseboard heaters or through the floors. The fluid can be heated by any means....gas, wood, fuel oil, etc, but in built-up areas where piped gas is available, natural gas is currently the most economical and therefore the usual choice. The fluid is in an enclosed system and circulated throughout by means of a motorized pump. Most new systems are fitted with condensing boilers for greater efficiency.
Hydronic systems are being used more and more in new construction in North America for several reasons. Among the reasons are:
They are more efficient and more economical than forced-air systems (although initial installation can be more expensive, because of the cost of the copper and aluminum).
The baseboard copper pipes and aluminum fins take up less room and use less metal than the bulky steel ductwork required for forced-air systems.
They provide more even, less fluctuating temperatures than forced-air systems. The copper baseboard pipes hold and release heat over a longer period of time than air does, so the furnace does not have to switch off and on as much. (Copper heats mostly through conduction and radiation, whereas forced-air heats mostly through forced convection. Air has much lower thermal conductivity and higher specific heat than copper; however, convection results in faster heat loss of air compared to copper. See also thermal mass.)
They do not dry out the interior air as much.
They do not introduce any dust, allergens, mold, or (in the case of a faulty heat exchanger) combustion byproducts into the living space.
Accessories
13 Essential Boiler's Fittings
Safety Valves
Water Gauges
Pressure Gauges
Blowdown Valves
Feed Pumps
Main steam Stop Valve
Feed Check Valves
Fusible Plug
Low-Water Alarm
Low Water Fuel Cut-out
Inspectors Test Pressure Gauge Attachment
Name Plate
Registration Plate
Boiler fittings
Safety valve: used to relieve pressure and prevent possible explosion of a boiler
Water column: to show the operator the level of fluid in the boiler, a water gauge or water column is provided
Bottom blowdown valves
Surface blowdown line
Circulating pump
Check valve or clack valve: a nonreturn stop valve by which water enters the boiler.
Steam accessories
Main steam stop valve
Steam traps
Main steam stop/Check valve used on multiple boiler installations
Combustion accessories
Fuel oil system
Gas system
Coal system
Automatic combustion systems
Controlling draft
Most boilers now depend on mechanical draft equipment rather than natural draft. This is because natural draft is subject to outside air conditions and temperature of flue gases leaving the furnace, as well as the chimney height. All these factors make proper draft hard to attain and therefore make mechanical draft equipment much more economical.
There are three types of mechanical draft:
1) Induced draft: This is obtained one of three ways, the first being the "stack effect" of a heated chimney, in which the flue gas is less dense than the ambient air surrounding the boiler. The more dense column of ambient air forces combustion air into and through the boiler. The second method is through use of a steam jet. The steam jet oriented in the direction of flue gas flow induces flue gasses into the stack and allows for a greater flue gas velocity increasing the overall draft in the furnace. This method was common on steam driven locomotives which could not have tall chimneys. The third method is by simply using an induced draft fan (ID fan) which sucks flue gases out of the furnace and up the stack. Almost all induced draft furnaces have a negative pressure.
2) Forced draft: Draft is obtained by forcing air into the furnace by means of a fan (FD fan) and ductwork. Air is often passed through an air heater; which, as the name suggests, heats the air going into the furnace in order to increase the overall efficiency of the boiler. Dampers are used to control the quantity of air admitted to the furnace. Forced draft furnaces usually have a positive pressure.
3) Balanced draft: Balanced draft is obtained through use of both induced and forced draft. This is more common with larger boilers where the flue gases have to travel a long distance through many boiler passes. The induced draft fan works in conjunction with the forced draft fan allowing the furnace pressure to be maintained slightly below atmospheric.

Water pumps

Here is some information on water pumps.
A pump is a device used to move liquids or slurries. A pump moves liquids from lower pressure to higher pressure, and overcomes this difference in pressure by adding energy to the system (such as a water system). A gas pump is generally called a compressor, except in very low pressure-rise applications, such as in heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning, where the operative equipment consists of fans or blowers.
Pumps work by using mechanical forces to push the material, either by physically lifting, or by the force of compression.
Pumps are used throughout society for a variety of purposes. Early applications includes the use of the windmill or watermill to pump water. Today, the pump is used for irrigation, water supply, gasoline supply, air conditioning systems, refrigeration (usually called a compressor), chemical movement, sewage movement, flood control, marine services, etc.
Because of the wide variety of applications, pumps have a plethora of shapes and sizes: from very large to very small, from handling gas to handling liquid, from high pressure to low pressure, and from high volume to low volume.
Domestic Central Heating Pumps may be powered by an internal combustion engine, electric motor, manually (as with the hand pump used for pumping groundwater, called walking beam pump), or by wind power (common for irrigation). Solar power has been used to power an electric motor, for remote locations.
I hope this helped you understand pumps a little better.

WELLS (many types)

Types of water wells Dug wells 100 year old, brick lined water well. Location: province of Buenos Aires, Argentina Until recent centuries, all artificial wells were pumpless dug wells of varying degrees of formality. Their indispensability has produced numerous literary references, literal and figurative, to them, including the Christian Bible story of Jesus meeting a woman at Jacob's well (John 4:6) and the "Ding Dong Bell" nursery rhyme about a cat in a well. Such primitive dug wells were excavations with diameters large enough to accommodate muscle-powered digging to below the water table. Relatively formal versions tended to be lined with laid stones or brick; extending this lining into a wall around the well presumably served to reduce both contamination and injuries by falling into the well. The iconic American farm well features a peaked roof above the wall, reducing airborne contamination, and a cranked windlass, mounted between the two roof-supporting members, for raising and lowering a bucket to obtain water. More modern dug wells may be hand pumped, especially in undeveloped and third-world countries. Note that the term "shallow well" is not a synonym for dug well, and may actually be quite deep - see Aquifer type, below. Driven Wells Driven wells consist of a series of pipes with a point and a perforated pipe at the end. The point is driven into the ground, thus the name driven, to a depth of up to 75 feet. Drilled wells Cable tool water well drilling rig in Kimball, West Virginia. These slow rigs have mostly been replaced by rotary drilling rigs in the US. Drilled wells can access water from a much deeper level by mechanical drilling. Drilled wells with electric pumps are currently used throughout the world, mainly in developing and developed countries, typically in rural or sparsely populated areas, though many urban areas are supplied partly by Municipal wells. Drilled wells are typically created using either top-head rotary style, table rotary, or cable tool drilling machines, all of which use drilling stems that are turned to create a cutting action in the formation, hence the term 'drilling'. Most shallow well drilling machines are mounted on large trucks, trailers, or tracked vehicle carriages. Water wells typically range from 20 to 600 feet, but in some areas can go deeper than 3,000 feet. Rotary drilling machines use a segmented steel drilling string, typically made up of 20 foot sections of steel tubing that is threaded together, with a bit or other drilling device at the bottom end. Some rotary drilling machines are designed to install (by driving or drilling) a steel casing into the well in conjunction with the drilling of the actual bore hole. Air and/or water is used as a circulation fluid to displace cuttings & cool bits during the drilling. Another form of rotary style drilling, termed 'mud rotary', makes use of a specially made mud, or drilling fluid, which is constantly being altered during the drill so that it can consistently create enough hydraulic pressure to hold the side walls of the bore hole open, regardless of the presence of a casing in the well. Typically, boreholes drilled into solid rock are not cased until after the drilling process is completed, regardless of the machinery used. The oldest form of drilling machinery is the Cable Tool, still used today. Specifically designed to raise & lower a bit into the bore hole, the 'spudding' of the drill cause the bit to be raised & dropped onto the bottom of the hole, and the design of the cable causes the bit to twist at approximately 1/4 revolution per drop, thereby creating a drilling action. Unlike rotary drilling, cable tool drilling requires the drilling action to be stopped so that the bore hole can be bailed or emptied of drilled cuttings. Drilled wells are typically cased with a factory made pipe, typically steel (in air rotary or cable tool drilling) or plastic/PVC (in mud rotary wells, also present in wells drilled into solid rock). The casing is constructed by welding, either chemically or thermodynamically, segments of casing together. If the casing is installed during the drilling, most drills will drive the casing into the ground as the bore hole advances, while some newer machines will actually allow for the casing to be rotated & drilled into the formation in a similar manner as the bit advancing just below. PVC or plastic is typically welded & then lowered the drilled well, vertically stacked with their ends nested & either glued or splined together. The sections of casing are usually 20' or more in length, and 6" - 12" in diameter, depending on the intended use of the well and local ground water conditions. Surface contamination of wells in the United States is typically controlled by the use of a 'surface seal'. A large hole is drilled to a predetermined depth or to a confining formation (clay or bedrock, for example), and then a smaller hole for the well is completed from that point forward. The well is typically cased from the surface down into the smaller hole with a casing that is the same diameter as that hole. The annular space between the large bore hole & the smaller casing is filled with bentonite clay, concrete, or other sealant material. This creates an impermeable seal from the surface to the next confining layer that keeps contaminants from traveling down the outer sidewalls of the casing or borehole & into the aquifer. In addition, wells are typically capped with either an engineered well cap or seal that vents air through a screen into the well, but keeps insects, small animals, and unauthorized individuals from accessing the well. At the bottom of wells, based on formation, a screening device, filter pack, slotted casing, or open bore hole is left to allow the flow of water into the well. Constructed screens are typically used in unconsolidated formations (sands, gravels, etc.), allowing water & a percentage of the formation to pass through the screen. Allowing some material to pass through creates a large area filter out of the rest of the formation, as the amount of material present to pass into the well slowly decreases & is removed from the well. Rock wells are typically cased with a PVC liner/casing & screen or slotted casing at the bottom, this is mostly present just to keep rocks from entering the pump assembly. Some wells utilize a 'filter pack' method, where an undersized screen or slotted casing is placed inside the well & a filter media is packed around the screen, between the screen & the borehole or casing. This allows the water to be filtered of unwanted materials before entering the well & pumping zone. Driven wells may be created in unconsolidated material with a "well point", which consists of a hardened drive point and a screen. The point is simply driven into the ground, usually with a tripod and "driver", with pipe sections added as needed. A driver is a weighted pipe that slides over the pipe being driven and is repeatedly dropped on it. When groundwater is encountered, the well is washed of sediment and a pump installed. This is the cheapest and simplest type of water well known today, however it is only useful at relatively shallow depths and for small capacity wells.

Different types of ground water wells

A water well is an artificial excavation or structure put down by any method such as digging, driving, boring, or drilling for the purposes of withdrawing water from underground aquifers. A hand-drawn water well in Chennai, India Well water may be drawn via mechanical pump (such as an electric submersible pump) from a source below the surface of the earth, or drawn using containers, such as buckets, that are raised mechanically, or by hand. Wells can vary greatly in depth, water volume and water quality. Well water typically contains more minerals in solution than surface water and may require treatment to soften the water. Ground Water Water well at the German monastery "Kloster Wald" A well is made by reaching ground water in the water table. Ground water is stored naturally below the earth's surface. Most ground water originates as rain or snow that seeps into the ground and collects. Ground water provides about 20 percent of the fresh water used in the United States. Most rural areas, and some cities depend on ground water as their source for water. Most rainwater is absorbed by the ground and fills the tiny spaces between soil particles. However, excess water runs over the top of the soil until it reaches a river, stream, or reservoir. Runoff water brings pollutants it encounters along the way to the reservoir. As water seeps into the ground, it settles in the pores and cracks of underground rocks and into the spaces between grains of sand and pieces of gravel. In time, the water trickles down into a layer of rock or other material that is water tight. This water tight zone collects the ground water, creating a saturated zone known as an aquifer. Aquifers in the United States are usually made from gravel, sandstone, limestone, or basalt (volcanic rock). The water in the earth that these wells obtain is at a place in the ground known as the water table. The water table is the level of the ground water below the earth's surface. This table is measured by the depth of the upper limit of the Aquifer. The water table can be lowered by lack of precipitation or overdraft. Overdraft occurs when water is removed from the aquifer at a faster rate than can be naturally replaced by rain or snow. The lowering of the water table causes problems such as land subsidence, surface cracking, sinkholes on the surface, damage to the aquifer's water producing character due to compaction. For instance, in the Chinese city of Shanghai, the earth was generally soft. People used to pump out ground water from wells, leading to the eventual sinking of the surrounding strata. Shanghai's city government was forced to seal all wells in the city in the 1960s. In coastal areas, overdraft can lead to salt water intrusion. Salt water intrusion occurs in low water tables where drops in water pressure can lead to the ocean backing up into the ground water. In a damp area, the water table can be reached simply by digging. In this case the well walls are usually lined with brick, stone, or concrete in order to keep the sides from caving in on the well. A dug well can be up to 50 feet deep, and has the greatest diameter of any of the well types. Well water that contains a high number of dissolved minerals is called a mineral well. Except for areas containing Karst formations, underground water is considered fairly clean because soils create a filter that remove large toxins.

Tank type water heaters

Tank-type water heaters In household and commercial usage, most water heaters in North America are of the tank type. Also called storage water heaters, these consist of a cylindrical tank in which water is kept continuously hot and ready for use. Typical sizes for household use range from 75 to 400 litres (20 to 100 U.S. gallons). These may use electricity, natural gas, propane, heating oil, solar, or other energy sources. Natural gas heaters are most popular in the United States and most European countries, since the gas is often conveniently piped throughout cities and towns and currently is the cheapest to use. Compared to tankless heaters, storage water heaters have the advantage of using energy (gas or electricity) at a relatively slow rate, storing the heat for later use. Larger tanks tend to provide hot water with less temperature fluctuation at moderate flow rates. Storage water heaters in the United States and New Zealand are typically vertical, cylindrical tanks, usually standing on the floor or on a platform raised a short distance above the floor. Storage water heater tanks in Spain are typically horizontal. In apartments they can be mounted in the ceiling space over laundry-utility rooms. Tiny point-of-use electric storage water heaters with capacities ranging from 8 to 32 litres (2 to 6 gallons) are made for installation in kitchen and bath cabinets or on the wall above a sink. They typically use low power heating elements, about 1 kW to 1.5 kW, and can provide hot water long enough for hand washing, or, if plumbed into an existing hot water line, until hot water arrives from a remote high capacity water heater. They are sometimes used when retrofitting a pump and recirculating plumbing in a building is too costly or impractical. Since they maintain water temperature thermostatically, they will supply hot water at extremely low flow rates, unlike tankless heaters. However, the heating element may be prone to burnout if it should be operated without water in the tank. The inner tank of the Water heater is the single most important feature of a water heater. The best heaters have a copper container. The second most important feature may be the type of heating element.

water heating

Water heating is a thermodynamic process using an energy source to heat water above its initial temperature. Typical domestic uses of hot water are for cooking, cleaning and bathing, and space heating. In industry both hot water and water heated to steam have many uses. Domestically, water is traditionally heated in vessels known as kettles, cauldrons, pots or coppers. These vessels heat a batch of water but do not produce a continual supply. Appliances for providing a more-or-less constant supply of hot water are variously known as water heaters, boilers, heat exchangers, calorifiers or geysers depending on whether they are heating Potable or non-potable water, in domestic or industrial use, their energy source, and in which part of the world they are found. In domestic installations, potable water heated for uses other than space heating is sometimes known as Domestic Hot Water (DHW). The most common energy sources for heating water are fossil fuels: natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, oil or sometimes solid fuels. These fuels may be consumed directly or by the use of electricity (which may derive from any of the above fuels or from nuclear or renewable sources). Alternative energy such as solar energy, heat pumps, hot water heat recycling, and sometimes geothermal power, may also be used as available, usually in combination with gas, oil or electricity.

Insulation of water heaters

In general, the more tank insulation the better, since it reduces standby heat loss. Tanks are available with insulation ratings ranging from R-6 to R-24. It may be possible to add an extra insulating blanket or jacket on the outside of a poorly insulated tank to reduce heat loss. The most common type of water heater blanket is fiberglass insulation with a vinyl film on the outside. The insulation is wrapped around the tank and the ends are taped together. It is important that the blanket be the right size for the tank and not block air flow or cover safety and drainage valves, the controls, or block airflow through the exhaust vent, if any. In very humid locations, adding insulation to an already well-insulated tank may cause condensation problems, potentially causing rust, mold, or operational problems. Modern water heaters have PUF (Poly Urathene Foam) insulation. In countries where serviceability is very important, PUF capsules are kept between the inner tank and the outer body. Other improvements include check valve devices at their inlet and outlet, cycle timers, electronic ignition in the case of fuel-using models, sealed air intake systems in the case of fuel-using models, and pipe insulation. The sealed air-intake system types are sometimes called "band-joist" intake units. "High efficiency" condensing units can convert up to 98% of the energy in the fuel to heating the water. The exhaust gases of combustion are cooled and are mechanically ventilated either through the roof or through an exterior wall. At high combustion efficiencies a drain must be supplied to handle the water condensed out of the combustion products which are primarily carbon dioxide and water vapor. In traditional plumbing in the United Kingdom the space-heating boiler is set up to heat a separate hot water cylinder or hot water tank for potable hot water. Such tanks are often fitted with an auxiliary electrical immersion heater for a quick temperature boost. Heat from the space-heating boiler is transferred to the potable water tank by means of a heat exchanger, and the boiler operates at a higher temperature than the potable hot water supply. Most potable water heaters in the United States are completely separate from the space heating units. Residential combustion water heaters manufactured since 2003 in the United States have been redesigned to resist ignition of flammable vapors and incorporate a thermal cutoff switch, per ANS Z21.10.1. The first feature attempts to prevent vapors from flammable liquids and gasses in the vicinity of the heater from being ignited and thus causing a house fire or explosion. The second feature prevents tank overheating due to unusual combustion conditions. These safety requirements were made based on homeowners placing, and sometimes spilling, gasoline and other flammable gases near their water heaters and causing fires. Since most of the new designs incorporate some type of flame arrestor screen, they require monitoring to make sure they don't become clogged with lint or dust, reducing the availability of air for combustion. If the flame arrestor becomes clogged, the thermal cutoff may act to shut down the heater.

pipe wrench

The pipe wrench, or Stillson® wrench is an adjustable wrench used for turning soft iron pipes and fittings with a rounded surface. The design of the adjustable jaw allows it to rock in the frame, such that any forward pressure on the handle tends to pull the jaws tighter together. Teeth angled in the direction of turn dig into the soft pipe. They are not for use on hard hex nuts. Pipe wrenches are usually sold in the following sizes (in inches): 10, 14, 18, 24, 36, and 48. They are usually made of either steel or aluminium. Teeth, and jaw kits (which also contain adjustment rings and springs) can be bought to repair broken wrenches, as this is cheaper than buying a new wrench. These wrenches are sometimes colloquially known as monkey wrenches but this is not technically correct, as the term refers to a specific type of wrench not common anymore, that was unusable on pipe. The U.S. Patent Office issued U.S. Patent 95,744 to Daniel C. Stillson on 12 October 1869. Many companies now manufacture pipe wrenches, but the most prominent professional-grade manufacturer (and the most common in the North American plumbing trade) is RIDGID. In the UK these wrenches are often described by their size i.e. 18" wrenches are known as "18's", or by the general name of "Stillies". The most prominent professional-grade manufacturer in the UK is RECORD.

water piping

Water pipes are pipes or tubes, frequently made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC/uPVC), ductile iron, polyethylene, or copper, that carry pressurized and treated fresh water to buildings (as part of a municipal water system), as well as inside the building. An original Roman lead pipe with a folded seam, at the Roman Baths in Bath, UK. For many centuries, lead was the favored material for water pipes, due to its malleability (this use was so common that the word "plumbing" derives from the Latin word for lead). This was a source of lead related health problems in the years before the health hazards of ingesting lead were fully understood; among these were stillbirth and high rates of infant mortality. Lead water pipes were still in common use in the early 20th century and remain in many households. Lead-tin alloy solder was commonly used to join copper pipes, but modern practice uses pure tin to join copper in order to eliminate lead hazards. Wooden pipes were often used in Montreal and Boston in the 1800's. The pipes were hollowed out logs. These logs were tapered at the end with a small hole in which the water would pass through. The multiple pipes were then sealed together with hot animal fat. A rusted water pipe due for replacement. Iron pipe was long a lower cost alternative to copper, before the advent of durable plastic materials but special non-conductive fittings must be used where transistions are to be made to other metalic pipes, except for terminal fittings, in order to avoid corrosion owing to electochemical reactions between dissimilar metals (see galvanic cell). Bronze fittings and short pipe segments are commonly used in combination with various materials.

copper pipe installation

TYPES OF COPPER PIPE There are two basic types of copper pipe or tubing: rigid and flexible. Rigid pipe, usually installed in new homes, makes a neater installation, but it is much more difficult to install than soft, flexible copper pipe. Flexible copper pipe is best for repair work since it can be run around obstacles without connections or cuts. Copper pipe is available in three basic types: Type M is thin-walled, Type L is medium-walled and Type K is thick-walled. In most cases, Type L is good for home use. Check your city code to determine which type of pipe is required for the work you're planning. Fig. 1 shows the inside and outside dimensions of medium-weight, Type L copper pipe. FIGURE 1 The chart shows the dimensions of medium-weight, Type L copper pipe. Nominal Size Outside Diameter Inside Diameter 1/4" .375" .315" 3/8" .500" .430" 1/2" .625" .545" 5/8" .750" .667" 3/4" .875" .785" 1" 1.125" 1.025" 1 1/4" 1.375" 1.265" 1 1/2" 1.625" 1.505" 2" 2.125" 1.98 Copper pipe fittings for making blends and turns, fittings for joining or branching pipes, other copper fittings. COPPER PIPE FITTINGS There are the three basic categories of copper pipe fittings. The first category includes fittings designed for making bends and turns in the pipe. The second category has fittings made for joining or branching copper pipe. The final category includes couplings, slip couplings, cast iron pipe adapters, etc. You can use any of these fittings on either rigid or flexible pipe. The fittings illustrated are by no means the complete array of copper pipe fittings. Other fittings are available to help solve special piping problems. Use a hacksaw or tube cutter to cut copper pipe. CUTTING COPPER PIPE You can cut copper pipe with a regular hacksaw or a copper tube cutter (Fig. 3). Although both will make a satisfactory cut, the tube cutter ensures a square cut every time. Use a jig or miter box when you're cutting copper pipe with a hacksaw. This helps to ensure a square cut in the pipe. You can make a jig from a wooden board or block with a vee notch sawed out to hold the pipe in place. A slot in the jig will guide the saw at right angles to the vee notch, making it easy to hold the pipe while cutting and helping ensure a square cut. When using a pipe cutter, hold the copper tubing in place with a pipe vise or some other holding device. After making the cut, remove the burrs inside the pipe with a half-round file. A pipe cutter usually leaves more burrs in the pipe than a hacksaw. When cutting pipe for a specific run, be sure to make allowances for the distance of pipe that fits into the fittings. Also, remember to add the extra length the fittings will give the entire run of pipe. Figure about 1/2" for each fitting. 1. Spread flux evenly on the cleaned end of the copper pipe. 2.Rub flux into the cleaned fittings. 3.Place the fitting on the pipe in its final position, rotating the joint several times. 4. Use a propane torch to apply heat for soldering. SWEATING A JOINT IN COPPER PIPE After you've cut the copper pipe to the proper length, clean the end of the pipe with a 4-in-1 tool. Clean the area to be inserted in the fitting until it is bright all around. You can also use a separate brush, fine sandpaper or steel wool. If you're using the 4-in-1 brush, slide the pipe inside the brush. The standard 4-in-1 tool will clean both 1/2" and 3/4" pipe and fittings. Be sure you are using the right size. Turn the tool back and forth until the pipe is bright. You can also hold sandpaper or steel wool around the pipe with light pressure. Then turn the tube back and forth several times. You must also clean the inside of all fittings. You can use the 4-in-1 tool, brush, steel wool or sandpaper. Take the time to clean them thoroughly. Debris or foreign matter left in the pipe causes a poor seal. Next, apply a light coat of soldering paste or flux to the cleaned end of the copper pipe (Fig. 4). Use a flux brush, an old toothbrush or a wooden paddle for spreading the flux. Flux or soldering paste ensures a firm bond between the copper and the solder. Also apply flux to the inside of the cleaned fittings . Use a flux brush, wooden paddle or toothbrush to apply the soldering paste. The flux or soldering paste will keep the copper from oxidizing when heated. Never use acid core solder for sweating copper pipe. Place the copper fitting on the pipe only after it is thoroughly cleaned and coated with soldering paste. When the fitting is firmly in place, rotate both the pipe and the fitting several times to spread the flux evenly. A propane torch is an ideal tool for sweating copper pipe. If you look at the flame of a propane torch you will notice there is a lighter blue, well-defined flame in the middle of a darker blue flame. The tip of this light blue flame is the hottest part of the flame . Play the flame along the fittings and the pipe to bring them up to soldering heat. Then concentrate the heat in the middle of the fitting. The light blue flame should be just touching the fitting. You can do both ends of the fitting at the same time by heating in the middle like this. Do not apply the heat directly to the solder or the area that has been fluxed. Do not overheat the copper pipe. If you look at the flame on the side of the pipe away from the torch, you may notice a green flame develop. This means the fitting is ready to solder. Another way to tell is to touch the solder to the hot pipe. If the solder melts and begins to run, the pipe is at soldering temperature. Remove the flame from the pipe and apply the solder to the pipe where it joins the fitting. The solder will flow into the fit. Keep melting the solder until it appears completely around the fitting. The old saying, "If a little is good, then a lot is better," does not apply here. Excess solder can run down inside the pipe, causing a restriction or even a blockage. Many codes now require lead-free or nearly lead-free solder to be used for water supply lines. Check with your local code to be sure. Never use acid core solder for sweating copper pipes. Use either lead-free or 95/5 solid-core solder. If you are soldering both sides of a coupling or elbow or three sides of a tee, do it all at the same time. Heat the fitting and then quickly apply solder to all the joints. If you have to reheat a joint on a fitting, place a wet cloth on any nearby joints that have already been made. This can avoid damaging these nearby joints. You can experiment with different tips on your propane torch until you find the one that spreads the heat evenly along the pipe you are using. A standard coupling has a center ridge–the slip coupling is smooth inside. 1.Cut the pipe at the leak and mend with a slip coupling. 2.Completely cut out and remove the section of damaged pipe. 3. Remove the old pipe and replace it with a section of new pipe. 4. Solder the slip couplings into place. MENDING COPPER PIPE At some point, you may need to repair a leak in copper pipe or replace a damaged section with a new piece. You can use either a standard copper coupling of the proper size or a slip coupling for making repairs or inserting a new section in copper pipe (Fig. 8). The basic difference in a slip coupling and a standard coupling is the center ridge built into a standard coupling. Both fittings can be used for the same mending purposes, but the center ridge in the standard coupling makes it easier to center the fitting on a repair job. The ridge in the standard coupling automatically centers it when the coupling is used for making a splice in pipe. The slip coupling can be slid along the tube, but it must be centered by measuring at each joint. Small leaks in copper pipes can usually be corrected by sawing the pipe directly at the point of the leak . First, drain all the water from the pipe. Spread the pipes apart and insert a slip coupling or a standard coupling of the proper size over the pipe. If you use a slip coupling, insert it on the pipe and slide it to the desired position. The center ridge in the standard coupling makes slipping impossible. Clean the two ends by brushing, sanding or rubbing as previously described. Clean the ends of the pipe. Apply the flux to the pipe and fitting. Solder the slip coupling into position . In some cases, a section of pipe must be totally cut away and removed . You need to saw away the section of damaged pipe and cut a new piece of pipe of the same size and length. Remove the damaged pipe and replace it with a new section of pipe that is exactly the same size . Clean the ends and the inside of the couplings. After applying flux, put the two slip couplings into position and prepare for the sweating process. Solder the slip couplings into place. Use lead-free or 95/5 solid-core solder only. Never use acid-core solder for sweating copper pipe. Many older homes were originally plumbed with galvanized pipe. However, you can still use copper pipe when repairing the plumbing system. Lead Warning Many older homes have lead pipe water systems. Many newer homes have copper pipe water systems that have been soldered together with solder containing lead. Lead can leak into the drinking water system from the corrosion of materials in plumbing and distribution systems that contain lead. Exposure to lead may cause brain and nervous disorders, anemia, high blood pressure, kidney and reproductive problems, decreased red blood cells, slower reflexes and even death. The lead collects in the kidneys, liver and brain. Unlike many other chemicals, once lead enters a person's system it cannot be removed. Exposure to even small amounts over a period of years can cause irreversible damage. When working on a plumbing project, use lead-free solder. In normal use, if it has been six hours since the water system was used, turn on the water and let it run for a few minutes before drawing water to use for drinking or cooking. However, there is no need to waste this water. It may be used for such things as watering plants.